About the Role
As a Blockchain Engineering Intern at StraitsX, you will have the opportunity to gain valuable hands-on experience in the dynamic field of blockchain technology and digital asset management. You will work closely with our experienced team of blockchain engineers and operations team to support the custody and security of digital assets on various blockchain platforms.

   
What You Will Do

• Assist in the implementation and maintenance of secure storage solutions for digital assets, including cold storage and multi-signature wallets.
• Collaborate with cross-functional teams to develop and implement best practices for digital asset custody and security.
• Monitor blockchain networks for transactions and ensure timely processing and settlement of digital asset transfers.
• Develop and make improvements on smart contracts and scripts to improve the reliability and security of our custody process.
• Improve our blockchain payment networks, ensuring a high availability and uptime.

   
What We Are Looking for
Abilities

• Strong analytical and problem-solving skills.
• Ability to work effectively in a fast-paced and collaborative environment.
• Attention to detail and commitment to quality.
• Ability to learn quickly and adapt to new technologies.
• Capacity to work independently and as part of a team.
• Ability to translate complex technical concepts into clear, understandable language

Skills And Knowledge

• Proficiency in programming languages such as GoLang and Solidity.
• Understanding of blockchain technology and digital asset management.
• Familiarity with secure storage solutions for digital assets, including cold storage and multi-signature wallets.
• Knowledge of smart contract development and scripting.
• Experience with blockchain networks and transaction monitoring.
• Basic knowledge of UI/UX principles for improving user interfaces and experiences.

About the role

We are seeking a hands-on Security Engineer who thrives in a startup environment.

You'll work alongside product owners and engineers with the objective to secure the products in Startale's ecosystem. Products include a next-generation decentralized exchange with a fully on-chain order book (Strium), a user-facing application (StartaleApp) and a stablecoin (USDSC). This is a hands-on, technical role. You'll be the person who actively tests our systems, hunts for vulnerabilities, models threats against our products, and works with engineers to close the gaps — not the person who writes policies and generates reports. You'll report to the Security Lead and collaborate daily with Backend, Frontend, DevOps, and Blockchain engineering teams.

Why this role

• Startale's products handle user funds and on-chain transactions so security work has tangible impact.
• Owning the security posture of a project at scale and complexity such as Strium is an opportunity for professional growth.
• You will have direct influence over how product security is built across the organization.
• Focus is on driving product security and not on maintaining compliance documentation.
• Our team is backed by and partnering with leading Japanese enterprises so you will have a chance to work in a stable and well-funded company but with the autonomy and speed of a small team.

Key responsibilities

• Security Assessments & Penetration Testing: Conduct hands-on security testing of our applications, APIs, and infrastructure. Simulate real attack scenarios against our products. Find the vulnerabilities before external attackers or whitehat researchers do. Work with engineers to fix issues pragmatically.
• Threat Modeling: Build threat models for new services and features — especially Strium's trading engine, order book, and transaction flows. Identify attack surfaces, model adversary behavior, and define what needs to be hardened before launch.
• Vulnerability Triage & Remediation: Own the end-to-end lifecycle of findings — from discovery through severity assessment, developer-facing write-ups, remediation guidance, and verification of fixes. Coordinate with engineers so issues actually get closed.
• Vulnerability Disclosure & Bug Bounty: Manage incoming whitehat reports, validate findings by reproducing them, assess severity, communicate with researchers.
• AI Tools Security Support: Assess technical risks related to AI tools used within teams (such as data exfiltration, prompt injection, training-on-input), maintain security baselines for AI coding tools and review AI-powered internal tools.

Qualifications

Must-have

• 5+ years of hands-on experience with a focus on application security, penetration testing, or product security.
• Demonstrated ability to find vulnerabilities — through manual testing, architecture and/or code review, or creative attack simulation. You should be able to describe specific bugs you've found and how you found them.
• Practical experience with exchange or trading platform security — from a DEX (preferred) or DeFi protocol. You should understand order book mechanics, transaction flows, wallet security, and the threat landscape specific to trading infrastructure.
• Scripting and automation ability — you write tools and automate to scale security across the stack, not just audit and write reports.
• Experience triaging vulnerabilities and writing clear, actionable remediation guidance for developers.
• Strong written communication in English — you'll write tickets, assessment reports and researcher responses.

Strong plus

• Experience with cloud infrastructure security — least-privilege enforcement, network security, secrets management.
• Experience with container security — network policies, RBAC, pod security standards, image scanning, Dockerfile hardening, base image management.
• Ability to read and review code in at least one of: TypeScript/JavaScript, Solidity, Rust.
• Understanding of software supply chain security, including dependency risks, build integrity, and methods for tracking what components are included in shipped software.
• Experience managing or participating in a bug bounty program (e.g. Immunefi, HackerOne).

Domain plus

• Experience securing AI/LLM tooling in engineering teams — prompt injection risks, data leakage prevention, tool configuration hardening
• Japanese language ability (not required, but useful for company context)

Location / Timezone

• Strong preference for Tokyo-based or Singapore-based candidates - Startale office locations.
• Remote-friendly for exceptional candidates — must have 3+ hours overlap with Tokyo business hours (JST, UTC+9).

Target start date

• As soon as available; realistic target start of Q3 2026.

Target companies

Decentralized exchanges, DeFi protocols, blockchain security firms, L1/L2 chain security teams, or fintech companies with trading infrastructure. We're also open to strong AppSec engineers from cloud-native startups who have genuine interest in web3.

Ideal candidate

You're a hands-on security engineer who finds real vulnerabilities, not just runs scanners. You've secured a trading platform or exchange and understand the threats specific to financial infrastructure — order book manipulation, transaction signing, wallet compromise, front-running. You can take a system, map the attack surface, and come back with findings that matter. You write clear reports that engineers act on, and you know the difference between a theoretical risk and a real one. You're comfortable working independently in a fast-moving team where there's no playbook — you write the playbook.

Summary: We are seeking a skilled Ethereum Developer to join our team in enhancing and optimizing the Ethereum development experience. The role involves implementing EVM-compatible features and optimizing gas usage. The ideal candidate will have a deep understanding of Ethereum internals and Solidity.

Responsibilities:

• Develop and implement EVM-compatible features to enhance Ethereum development.
• Optimize gas usage for improved efficiency and performance.
• Collaborate with the team to refine and enhance Ethereum infrastructure.
• Conduct thorough testing and validation of smart contracts and features.
• Stay updated with the latest industry trends and advancements in Ethereum technology.
• Provide technical support and troubleshooting for Ethereum-related issues.

Required Skills:

• Proven experience in Ethereum development and smart contract programming.
• Strong proficiency in Solidity programming language.
• In-depth understanding of Ethereum internals and blockchain technology.
• Experience with gas optimization and performance tuning.
• Familiarity with EVM-compatible features and infrastructure.
• Excellent problem-solving skills and attention to detail.
• Strong communication and teamwork abilities.

Summary: Join a dynamic team to enhance a developer-focused protocol that facilitates cross-chain communication. You will play a crucial role in assisting external developers with integration and creating comprehensive technical documentation to streamline their experience.

Responsibilities:

• Collaborate with external developers to facilitate the integration of cross-chain communication protocols.
• Develop and maintain technical documentation to guide developers in implementing solutions.
• Provide technical support and troubleshooting assistance to resolve integration issues.
• Continuously improve protocol features by contributing innovative ideas and feedback.
• Stay up-to-date with industry trends and advancements in blockchain technology.

Required Skills:

• Proficiency in JavaScript and Solidity programming languages.
• Strong written and verbal communication skills.
• Experience with blockchain technology and cross-chain protocols.
• Ability to work collaboratively in a team-oriented environment.
• Problem-solving skills and attention to detail.

Summary: Join a premier blockchain security firm trusted by top-tier DeFi protocols as a Blockchain Security Auditor. This role involves conducting manual code reviews to identify critical vulnerabilities, ensuring the security and integrity of cutting-edge blockchain applications.

Responsibilities:

• Perform thorough manual code reviews to detect critical vulnerabilities in smart contracts.
• Collaborate with development teams to provide security insights and recommendations.
• Utilize tools such as Slither and Foundry to enhance security analysis.
• Document findings and create detailed reports for technical and non-technical stakeholders.
• Stay updated with the latest developments in blockchain technology and security trends.

Required skills:

• Expert knowledge of Solidity and Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM).
• Proven experience in conducting security audits for blockchain applications.
• Proficiency in using security analysis tools such as Slither and Foundry.
• Strong analytical and problem-solving skills.
• Excellent communication skills, both written and verbal.

Summary: Join a venture-backed Web3 startup at the forefront of innovation, creating next-generation social and financial primitives. As a Senior Software Engineer, you will design and develop core protocol features and secure smart contracts that will drive the future of decentralized technology.

Responsibilities:

• Architect and implement core protocol features for Web3 applications.
• Develop and deploy secure smart contracts using Solidity.
• Collaborate with cross-functional teams to integrate blockchain solutions.
• Ensure the scalability and performance of blockchain implementations.
• Stay updated with the latest developments in blockchain technology and EVM internals.
• Conduct code reviews and provide mentorship to junior developers.

Required skills:

• Proficiency in Solidity and TypeScript.
• Strong understanding of Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) internals.
• Experience in developing and deploying smart contracts on blockchain platforms.
• Knowledge of decentralized finance (DeFi) and blockchain protocols.
• Excellent problem-solving and analytical skills.
• Strong communication and collaboration abilities.

We are working with a decentralised exchange which looks to innovate on providing the best of CEXs and DEXs, focusing on building a safe, simple and scalable platform for trading. They differentiate themselves by offering institutional level systems and support whilst remaining on-chain and decentralised.

We are in search of a highly adept Trading Systems Engineer for the core Engineering team to strengthen the platform's performance, scalability, and observability. The ideal candidate will have a strong background in low-latency trading systems and experience supporting clients like quant funds and market makers in integrating with APIs (both REST and WebSocket).

As the Trading Gateway Engineer, responsibilities include implementing core connectivity systems to expand the trading engine into a global, low-latency network. This involves building foundational data distribution channels and improving their throughput and latency.

Successful candidates will engage with clients' developers and project managers, addressing inquiries and resolving issues. Collaboration with the Gateway team and Trading Engineering will be essential to troubleshoot API and trading issues while contributing to the overall Gateway roadmap. Additionally, work with the Product Engineering team to enhance the SDK for blockchain signatures used by API traders.

What you’ll be doing:

• Develop and optimize the core matching engine and risk engine for the exchange, ensuring high performance and low latency.
• Write highly reliable, production-ready code that guarantees the financial safety and integrity of computations.
• Investigate and debug complex issues through thorough analysis of logs.
• Create and maintain comprehensive unit tests and advanced integration tests to validate the exchange's financial computational correctness.
• Work with the Quant team to develop, test, and refine our various trading algorithms.
• Continuously improve and refine the trading core to meet evolving business and technical requirements.
• Stay updated with the latest advancements in HFT systems and low-latency trading technologies.

What we’re looking for:

• Minimum of 7 years of experience in software engineering, with at least 3 years focused on high-frequency trading (HFT) systems.
• Bachelor's or Master's degree in Computer Science, Engineering, or a related field.
• Proven experience in building and optimizing low-latency trading infrastructure. Proficient in low-latency message bus systems such as Aeron or Chronicle Queue.
• Strong proficiency in Golang and Solidity. Expertise in deterministic coding and zero garbage-collection techniques.
• Exceptional debugging and troubleshooting skills, with the ability to analyze complex logs and traces to identify and resolve issues.
• Strong emphasis on writing unit tests, integration tests, and other advanced testing methodologies to ensure financial computational correctness.
• Experience in the financial technology industry, particularly in high-frequency trading or crypto exchanges.
• Experience with real-time data processing systems and streaming technologies.

#LI-REMOTE

As a key member of the Software Engineering Team, you'll:

• Design and develop applications and components for various parts of our trading systems
• Utilise your expertise in C++ to write robust and performant code
• Utilise Python for various scripting and integration tasks
• Continuously enhance our systems to adapt to evolving trading needs
• Ensure the smooth operation and reliability of our trading systems

Second-Line Support and Collective Responsibility

At Grasshopper, our engineers are crucial in providing second-line support for the systems they write. This means taking ownership of system performance, actively addressing post-deployment issues, and troubleshooting any technical challenges. Additionally, during upgrades and new deployments, our engineers take on first-line support responsibilities, ensuring a seamless transition and promptly resolving any issues that may arise during critical phases.

We foster a culture of collective responsibility, where every team member contributes to the efficiency and solidity of our technology and operations. Collaboratively, we identify opportunities for optimisation and continuous improvement, sharing the goal of maintaining our position at the forefront of electronic trading and delivering exceptional results to our clients and partners.

Projects you might work on:

At Grasshopper, our Software Engineers are involved in a wide range of exciting projects, including but not limited to:

• Efficient processing of market data to provide real-time insights for trading decisions
• Efficient routing of orders to optimise trade execution and minimise latency
• Building efficient frameworks and tooling for algorithmic trading strategies
• Developing tools to manage and track risk exposure in trading operations properly
• Exploring and implementing innovative solutions to tackle various challenges in electronic trading

We'd love for you to have:

• 5 - 7 years of deep expertise in C++
• Proficiency in Python 
• Experience in low latency or high throughput environments
• Good knowledge of algorithms and data structures
• The ability to write clean code
• Good interpersonal and collaboration skills

What we offer: 

• 21 days annual leave
• An opportunity to learn from experienced professionals, fostering mentorship opportunities and personal growth
• Comprehensive Insurance Package with extended coverage for dependents
• Well stocked pantry
• Annual Dental & Wellness budget
• Gym membership
• Employee bonus referrals

As a key member of the Software Engineering Team, you'll:

• Design and develop applications and components for various parts of our trading systems
• Utilise your expertise in C++ to write robust and performant code
• Utilise Python for various scripting and integration tasks
• Continuously enhance our systems to adapt to evolving trading needs
• Ensure the smooth operation and reliability of our trading systems

Second-Line Support and Collective Responsibility

At Grasshopper, our engineers are crucial in providing second-line support for the systems they write. This means taking ownership of system performance, actively addressing post-deployment issues, and troubleshooting any technical challenges. Additionally, during upgrades and new deployments, our engineers take on first-line support responsibilities, ensuring a seamless transition and promptly resolving any issues that may arise during critical phases.

We foster a culture of collective responsibility, where every team member contributes to the efficiency and solidity of our technology and operations. Collaboratively, we identify opportunities for optimisation and continuous improvement, sharing the goal of maintaining our position at the forefront of electronic trading and delivering exceptional results to our clients and partners.

Projects you might work on:

At Grasshopper, our Software Engineers are involved in a wide range of exciting projects, including but not limited to:

• Efficient processing of market data to provide real-time insights for trading decisions
• Efficient routing of orders to optimise trade execution and minimise latency
• Building efficient frameworks and tooling for algorithmic trading strategies
• Developing tools to manage and track risk exposure in trading operations properly
• Exploring and implementing innovative solutions to tackle various challenges in electronic trading

We'd love for you to have:

• 2 - 4 years of deep expertise in C++
• Proficiency in Python 
• Experience in low latency or high throughput environments
• Good knowledge of algorithms and data structures
• The ability to write clean code
• Good interpersonal and collaboration skills

What we offer: 

• 21 days annual leave
• An opportunity to learn from experienced professionals, fostering mentorship opportunities and personal growth
• Comprehensive Insurance Package with extended coverage for dependents
• Well stocked pantry
• Annual Dental & Wellness budget
• Gym membership
• Employee bonus referrals

We are hiring for one of our clients. They are a fast-growing Web3 startup rethinking how digital identity and reputation work online. They’re building privacy-first infrastructure that lets users prove who they are and what they’ve done—without giving up personal data. Backed by strong ecosystem partners and a passionate founding team, the company is shaping a more trusted and user-centric internet.

We are seeking a Senior Quality Assurance (QA) Lead to own and elevate quality across the product lifecycle. You will define the QA strategy, and partner closely with Product, Engineering, and Design to ship reliable, secure, and delightful features.

Responsibilities

• Own end-to-end quality across the product suite — from defining QA strategy and test plans to hands-on execution, reporting, and continuous improvement.
• Shape the QA roadmap by setting up effective testing processes, tools, and metrics, ensuring smooth release cycles and data-driven quality tracking.
• Collaborate early and often with product and engineering to refine requirements, user flows, and acceptance criteria — advocating for testability and great user experiences.
• Plan and execute testing at every level (manual and automated): API, UI, integration, regression, and smoke — ensuring solid coverage and reliability.
• Drive smart automation — identify high-value test cases for automation and maintain stable, scalable test suites.
• Track and communicate quality metrics such as defect trends, coverage, and release health to keep the team aligned and proactive.
• Champion a shift-left mindset by embedding QA practices early in discovery and development, and helping engineers take ownership of quality.
• Oversee release readiness — from environment setup and data prep to go/no-go decisions and post-release validation.
• Lead defect management — prioritize fixes, uncover root causes, and turn insights into prevention and process improvements.
• Mentor and scale the QA function, building documentation, standards, and best practices that grow with the team.
• Partner with DevOps and Security to strengthen performance, reliability, and security testing — ensuring compliance and operational excellence.

Requirements

• 7+ years in QA/Software Quality roles with 2+ years leading QA initiatives or teams in a fast-paced product environment.
• Strong expertise in test strategy, risk-based testing, requirements analysis, and release management.
• Hands-on experience with test automation frameworks and tools (e.g., Playwright/Cypress/WebdriverIO, pytest/Jest, Postman/Newman, REST/GraphQL tools).
• Proficiency with CI/CD and version control (e.g., GitHub/GitLab Actions, Jenkins, CircleCI); experience integrating automated tests into pipelines.
• Solid understanding of modern web/mobile architectures, APIs, microservices, and cloud environments.
• Experience with non-functional testing: performance (e.g., k6, JMeter), reliability, accessibility, and security testing practices.
• Data-driven mindset with experience defining and reporting quality metrics and OKRs.
• Excellent communication and stakeholder management; able to translate technical quality issues into business impact and recommendations.

Nice to have

• Understanding of wallets and signing flows (e.g., MetaMask, WalletConnect, EIP-712 typed data), basic key management concepts.
• Exposure to smart contracts and EVM tooling (reading Solidity/ABIs, Foundry/Hardhat test basics, contract events).
• Experience testing dApp UX with wallet connectors, chain switching, and handling pending/confirmed/failed on-chain states.
• Awareness of token standards (ERC-20/721/1155), approvals/permits, and common failure modes (reverts, RPC errors, reorgs).
• Light exposure to wallet-aware E2E automation (e.g., Synpress or Playwright with mocked providers) is a plus.

We are hiring for one of our ecosystem projects in the digital asset space, we are looking for a Blockchain Developer to design, develop, and implement blockchain-based solutions for a high-performance trading system. The ideal candidate will have expertise in blockchain technologies, smart contract development, and trading system architecture, ensuring secure, scalable, and efficient solutions for decentralized trading applications.

Job Description:

• Design and develop blockchain-based trading platforms, including decentralized exchanges (DEX), automated market makers (AMM), or order-book systems.
• Write, test, and deploy secure smart contracts using platforms such as Ethereum, Binance Smart Chain, Solana, or other blockchain networks.
• Integrate blockchain solutions with front-end and back-end systems to enable seamless trading functionality.
• Implement security best practices to protect against vulnerabilities, including reentrancy attacks, front-running, and unauthorized access.
• Optimize smart contracts for gas efficiency and system performance to handle high-frequency trading scenarios.
• Collaborate with cross-functional teams, including traders, product managers, and DevOps engineers, to define system requirements and ensure alignment with business goals.
• Ensure compliance with relevant financial regulations and standards for trading systems.
• Monitor and maintain blockchain nodes, ensuring uptime and reliability of the trading infrastructure.
• Stay updated on emerging blockchain technologies, protocols, and industry trends to enhance system capabilities.

Qualifications:

• Bachelor’s degree in Computer Science, Engineering, or a related field (or equivalent experience).
• 3+ years of experience in blockchain development, with a focus on building decentralized applications (dApps) or trading systems.
• Proficiency in programming languages such as Solidity, Rust, or Go for smart contract development.
• Strong understanding of blockchain protocols (e.g., Ethereum, Solana, Polygon) and consensus mechanisms (e.g., PoW, PoS).
• Experience with trading system concepts, including order matching, liquidity pools, or market-making algorithms.
• Familiarity with DeFi protocols, token standards (e.g., ERC-20, ERC-721), and interoperability frameworks.
• Knowledge of cryptographic principles, including public/private key infrastructure and hashing algorithms.
• Experience with tools like Truffle, Hardhat, or Foundry for smart contract development and testing.
• Understanding of front-end and back-end integration (e.g., Web3.js, Ethers.js, REST APIs).
• Strong problem-solving skills and attention to detail in writing secure and efficient code.
• Excellent communication and collaboration skills to work in a fast-paced, team-oriented environment.

Nice to have:

• Experience with layer-2 scaling solutions (e.g., Optimism, Arbitrum) or cross-chain bridges.
• Knowledge of financial markets, trading strategies, or algorithmic trading.
• Familiarity with cloud platforms (e.g., AWS, Azure) and containerization (e.g., Docker, Kubernetes).
• Contributions to open-source blockchain projects or active participation in blockchain communities.
• Understanding of regulatory frameworks for cryptocurrencies and trading platforms (e.g., KYC/AML compliance).

We are hiring for one of our ecosystem projects in Web3. As a Web3 Full Stack Developer, you will design, develop, and maintain decentralized applications (dApps) and blockchain-based systems. You will work across the full stack, from smart contract development to front-end interfaces, collaborating with cross-functional teams to deliver secure, scalable, and user-friendly Web3 solutions. Your expertise in Web3 protocols and modern tech stacks will be critical to building robust applications for the decentralized web.

Key Responsibilities

• Smart Contract Development: Design, develop, test, and deploy secure smart contracts on various blockchain platforms (e.g., Ethereum, Solana, Polkadot, Cosmos).
• Backend Development: Build and maintain backend infrastructure for dApps using languages like Golang, Java, Node.js, or Rust, ensuring scalability and performance.
• Frontend Development: Create responsive, user-friendly front-end interfaces for dApps using modern frameworks (e.g., React, Vue.js, Next.js) integrated with Web3 libraries (e.g., ethers.js, web3.js).
• Blockchain Integration: Integrate dApps with blockchain networks, wallets (e.g., MetaMask, WalletConnect), and decentralized protocols (e.g., IPFS, The Graph).
• Protocol Development: Contribute to the design and implementation of Web3 protocols, including consensus mechanisms, cross-chain bridges, or DeFi primitives.
• Security & Testing: Implement secure coding practices, conduct audits, and develop testing frameworks to ensure the reliability and security of smart contracts and dApps.
• Optimization: Optimize performance of blockchain interactions, gas efficiency, and backend systems to enhance user experience and reduce costs.
• Collaboration: Work with product managers, blockchain engineers, and designers to deliver end-to-end Web3 solutions aligned with project goals.
• Research & Innovation: Stay updated on Web3 trends, emerging protocols, and new blockchain technologies to propose innovative solutions.

Qualifications

• Education: Bachelor’s or Master’s degree in Computer Science, Engineering, or a related technical field, or equivalent experience.
• Experience:
  • 3+ years of full stack development experience, with at least 1+ years in Web3 or blockchain development.
  • Proven experience building dApps or working on Web3 protocols (e.g., DeFi, NFTs, DAOs, or layer-2 solutions).
• Technical Skills:
  • Proficiency in Golang, Java, Node.js, or Rust for backend development.
  • Experience with smart contract languages like Solidity, Vyper, or Rust (for Solana/Polkadot).
  • Strong knowledge of front-end technologies (e.g., React, Vue.js, TypeScript, Next.js) and Web3 libraries (e.g., ethers.js, web3.js).
  • Familiarity with blockchain protocols (e.g., Ethereum, Solana, Cosmos, Polkadot) and tools (e.g., Truffle, Hardhat, Foundry).
  • Experience with decentralized storage (e.g., IPFS, Filecoin) and indexing solutions (e.g., The Graph).
  • Understanding of RESTful APIs, GraphQL, and microservices architecture.
• Web3 Knowledge: Deep understanding of blockchain concepts (e.g., consensus mechanisms, gas fees, EVM, cross-chain interoperability) and Web3 ecosystems (e.g., DeFi, NFTs, DAOs).
• Security Skills: Knowledge of smart contract security best practices, common vulnerabilities (e.g., reentrancy, front-running), and auditing tool

.Bonus Skills:

• Experience with layer-2 solutions (e.g., Arbitrum, Optimism) or cross-chain bridges.
• Familiarity with DevOps tools (e.g., Docker, Kubernetes) and cloud platforms (e.g., AWS, GCP).
• Contributions to open-source Web3 projects or blockchain protocols.
• Knowledge of cryptographic principles (e.g., zero-knowledge proofs, MPC).